价格差异 = (实际价格 - 预算价格) × 实际数量

预算：1,000 单位 @ $50 = $50,000
实际：1,000 单位 @ $53 = $53,000
价格差异 = ($53 - $50) × 1,000 = $3,000 不利（成本）或有利（收入）

数量差异 = (实际数量 - 预算数量) × 预算价格

预算：1,000 单位 @ $50 = $50,000
实际：1,100 单位 @ $50 = $55,000
数量差异 = (1,100 - 1,000) × $50 = $5,000 有利（收入）

组合差异 = (实际组合% - 预算组合%) × 实际总数量 × 预算边际

周 →           W1      W2      W3      W4    ...   W13     总计
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
期初现金     100K    112K    108K    95K          XXK     100K
流入
  收款        50K     45K     55K     40K          XXK     XXX
  其他收入    2K      1K      3K      2K           XXK     XXX
总流入       52K     46K     58K     42K          XXK     XXX
流出
  薪资        (20K)   —       (20K)   —            XXK     XXX
  租金        (5K)    —       —       —            XXK     XXX
  供应商      (10K)   (12K)   (8K)    (15K)        XXK     XXX
  债务偿还    —       (5K)    —       —            XXK     XXX
  其他        (5K)    (3K)    (3K)    (4K)         XXK     XXX
总流出       (40K)   (20K)   (31K)   (19K)        XXK     XXX
净现金流     12K     (4K)    (13K)   23K          XXK     XXX
期末现金     112K    108K    95K     118K         XXK     XXX
最低余额要求  50K     50K     50K     50K          50K     50K
盈余/(赤字)   62K     58K     45K     68K          XXK     XXX

发票条款    收款模式
─────────────────────────────────────
Net 30      第1个月: 15%, 第2个月: 70%, 第3个月: 12%, 坏账: 3%
Net 15      第1个月: 80%, 第2个月: 17%, 坏账: 3%
COD         第1个月: 97%, 坏账: 3%

预测准确率 = 1 - |实际 - 预测| / |预测|
目标：1周预测准确率 >90%，4周预测准确率 >80%

步骤  任务                              负责人   天数   验证
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
1     截止AR/AP                        AR/AP    D+1   最后发票号匹配
2     银行对账                         Cash     D+1   所有项目<30天
3     记录应计项                       GL       D+2   应计计划表已签署
4     记录折旧/摊销                    GL       D+2   固定资产台账一致
5     公司间抵消                       GL       D+3   IC余额净额为零
6     收入确认审查                     Rev      D+3   ASC 606清单完成
7     库存/COGS对账                   Ops      D+3   实物与账面<2%
8     准备试算平衡表                   GL       D+4   借方=贷方
9     差异分析                         FP&A     D+4   所有重要项目已解释
10    管理层审查与签字                 CFO      D+5   已签署的结账包

示例：
日期：2026-02-28
借  6100 - 专业服务费    $15,000
    贷  2100 - 应计费用              $15,000
备注：根据业务委托书#2026-041应计2月法律费用
支持文件：律师确认2月活动的电子邮件
编制：代理 | 审批：[CFO姓名]

## 收入：$X.XM vs 预算 $X.XM (↑/↓ X.X%)
发生了什么变化：
[产品/服务线]收入比预算[高出/低于]$XXK
[数量/价格/组合]是主要驱动因素
为什么：
[根本原因——具体说明：失去客户、延迟交易、新合同、季节性]
[如适用，次要原因]
应该做什么：
[行动项1，包含负责人和截止日期]
[行动项2，包含负责人和截止日期]
展望：
[下一期间的前瞻性陈述]
[需要标记的风险/机会]

## 运营费用：$X.XM vs 预算 $X.XM (↑/↓ X.X%)
发生了什么变化：
[费用类别]比预算[超出/低于]$XXK
[一次性与经常性分类]
为什么：
[根本原因——招聘时机、供应商价格上涨、项目延迟等]
应该做什么：
[如超支：缓解计划或超支批准]
[如节约：节省是否永久或时间性]

## 现金状况：$X.XM (较上月↑/↓ $XXK)
主要变动：
运营现金流：$XXK [正/负]
收款：收到$XXK vs 开票$XXK（XX%收款率）
大额付款：[列出任何>$25K的单笔付款]
流动性展望：
现金流 runway：按当前消耗率XX个月
契约：[合规 / 接近阈值]
下一个重大现金事件：[日期和描述]

                          实际    预算    差异$    差异%    上年    同比%
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
收入
  产品A                   450K    500K     (50K)    -10.0%    380K      +18.4%
  产品B                   320K    300K      20K      +6.7%    290K      +10.3%
  服务                    180K    200K     (20K)    -10.0%    150K      +20.0%
总收入                   950K    1,000K    (50K)     -5.0%    820K      +15.9%
销货成本                 (380K)    (400K)     20K      -5.0%   (340K)     +11.8%
毛利润                   570K      600K     (30K)     -5.0%    480K      +18.8%
  毛利率                60.0%     60.0%       —         —     58.5%       +1.5pp
运营费用
  薪资                   (250K)    (240K)    (10K)     +4.2%   (200K)     +25.0%
  营销                    (60K)     (80K)     20K     -25.0%    (50K)     +20.0%
  一般及行政              (45K)     (50K)      5K     -10.0%    (40K)     +12.5%
总运营费用               (355K)    (370K)     15K      -4.1%   (290K)     +22.4%
EBITDA                   215K      230K     (15K)     -6.5%    190K      +13.2%
  EBITDA利润率          22.6%     23.0%    -0.4pp       —     23.2%      -0.6pp

预算EBITDA          $230K
  收入不足            (50K)   ← 数量: (30K), 价格: (15K), 组合: (5K)
  销货成本有利         20K   ← 材料成本低于预期
  薪资超支           (10K)   ← 比计划提前2周招聘
  营销节约            20K   ← 活动推迟到下个月
  一般及行政节约       5K   ← 办公租赁谈判
实际EBITDA          $215K

客户          当期    1-30天   31-60天  61-90天  90天以上  总计     占AR比例
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Acme Corp    25,000   10,000   5,000    —        —        40,000   26.7%
Beta LLC     15,000    8,000    —        3,000    —        26,000   17.3%
Gamma Inc    20,000    —        —        —        12,000   32,000   21.3%
其他客户     30,000   15,000   5,000    2,000    —        52,000   34.7%
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
总计         90,000   33,000   10,000   5,000    12,000   150,000  100%
占比         60.0%    22.0%    6.7%     3.3%     8.0%     100%
准备金率     0%       0%       5%       25%      50%
准备金金额   —        —        500      1,250    6,000    7,750

银行对账单余额（2026年2月28日）           $125,432.18
加：在途存款
  2月27日 - 客户付款#4521                     8,500.00
  2月28日 - 电汇（待处理）                   15,000.00
                                           23,500.00
减：未兑现支票
  支票#3041（1月15日）- 供应商付款              (2,300.00)
  支票#3055（2月20日）- 租金                    (5,000.00)
  支票#3058（2月25日）- 办公用品                   (450.00)
                                           (7,750.00)
减：银行错误
  （本期无）                                     0.00
调整后银行余额                             $141,182.18
总账账面余额（2026年2月28日）              $141,682.18
减：银行手续费
  月度服务费                                    (35.00)
  电汇费                                        (25.00)
加：利息收入
  2月利息                                       12.00
减：NSF支票
  ABC客户 - 退票                              (452.00)
调整后账面余额                             $141,182.18
差异                                             $0.00  ✓ 已对账

A comprehensive financial analysis skill that enables AI agents to produce defensible, CFO-ready financial outputs. Every technique here is grounded in standard accounting practice (US GAAP / IFRS compatible) and designed for agents operating on real financial data.

When to Use

• Monthly/quarterly financial close cycles
• Variance analysis on budget vs actual results
• Cash flow forecasting and 13-week rolling dashboards
• Generating CFO commentary and board-ready narratives
• Ratio analysis for lending covenants or investor reporting
• AR/AP aging analysis and collections prioritization
• Bank reconciliation pattern matching

When NOT to Use

• Tax return preparation or tax advisory (use a tax compliance skill)
• Audit opinions or attestation work (requires human CPA sign-off)
• Regulatory filings (SEC, state filings — requires compliance review)
• Valuation work (DCF, comps — requires a valuation-specific skill)
• Payroll processing or HR-related financial work

---

1. Variance Analysis Methodology

Variance analysis decomposes the difference between budget and actual into price, volume, and mix components.

Price Variance

Measures the impact of actual price differing from budgeted price, holding volume constant.

Price Variance = (Actual Price - Budget Price) × Actual Volume

Example:

Budget: 1,000 units @ $50 = $50,000
Actual: 1,000 units @ $53 = $53,000
Price Variance = ($53 - $50) × 1,000 = $3,000 Unfavorable (cost) or Favorable (revenue)

Volume Variance

Measures the impact of actual volume differing from budgeted volume, at budgeted price.

Volume Variance = (Actual Volume - Budget Volume) × Budget Price

Example:

Budget: 1,000 units @ $50 = $50,000
Actual: 1,100 units @ $50 = $55,000
Volume Variance = (1,100 - 1,000) × $50 = $5,000 Favorable (revenue)

Mix Variance

When multiple products exist, mix variance isolates the impact of selling a different proportion than planned.

Mix Variance = (Actual Mix% - Budget Mix%) × Actual Total Volume × Budget Margin

Three-Way Reconciliation

Always reconcile: Total Variance = Price Variance + Volume Variance + Mix Variance

If the three don't sum to the total, you have a calculation error. Never present unreconciled variances.

Materiality Thresholds

Metric	Threshold	Action
Revenue line item	>5% or >$10K	Requires written explanation
Expense line item	>10% or >$5K	Requires written explanation
Net income impact	>2%	Requires CFO commentary
Balance sheet item	>$25K	Requires reconciliation

Adjust thresholds based on entity size. A $2M company uses different thresholds than a $200M company.

---

2. Cash Flow Forecasting (13-Week Rolling)

The 13-week cash flow forecast is the standard tool for liquidity management. It covers one full quarter on a weekly basis.

Structure

Week →           W1      W2      W3      W4    ...   W13     Total
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Opening Cash     100K    112K    108K    95K          XXK     100K
INFLOWS
  Collections    50K     45K     55K     40K          XXK     XXX
  Other Income   2K      1K      3K      2K           XXK     XXX
Total Inflows    52K     46K     58K     42K          XXK     XXX
OUTFLOWS
  Payroll        (20K)   —       (20K)   —            XXK     XXX
  Rent           (5K)    —       —       —            XXK     XXX
  Vendors        (10K)   (12K)   (8K)    (15K)        XXK     XXX
  Debt Service   —       (5K)    —       —            XXK     XXX
  Other          (5K)    (3K)    (3K)    (4K)         XXK     XXX
Total Outflows   (40K)   (20K)   (31K)   (19K)        XXK     XXX
Net Cash Flow    12K     (4K)    (13K)   23K          XXK     XXX
Closing Cash     112K    108K    95K     118K         XXK     XXX
Min Balance Req  50K     50K     50K     50K          50K     50K
Surplus/(Deficit)62K     58K     45K     68K          XXK     XXX

Collection Assumptions

Build collection curves from historical data:

Invoice Terms    Collection Pattern
─────────────────────────────────────
Net 30           Month 1: 15%, Month 2: 70%, Month 3: 12%, Bad debt: 3%
Net 15           Month 1: 80%, Month 2: 17%, Bad debt: 3%
COD              Month 1: 97%, Bad debt: 3%

Forecast Accuracy Tracking

Every week, compare last week's forecast to actual:

Forecast Accuracy = 1 - |Actual - Forecast| / |Forecast|
Target: >90% accuracy on 1-week forecast, >80% on 4-week

Red Flags

• Closing cash below minimum balance requirement in any week
• Three consecutive weeks of declining cash
• Collections falling below 85% of forecast
• Concentration: any single customer >25% of weekly inflows

---

3. Month-End Close Checklist

A disciplined 10-step close process. Target: complete within 5 business days of month-end.

The 10 Steps

Step  Task                              Owner    Day   Verification
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
1     Cut off AR/AP                     AR/AP    D+1   Last invoice # matches
2     Bank reconciliation               Cash     D+1   All items <30 days
3     Record accruals                   GL       D+2   Accrual schedule signed
4     Record depreciation/amortization  GL       D+2   Fixed asset register ties
5     Intercompany eliminations         GL       D+3   IC balances net to zero
6     Revenue recognition review        Rev      D+3   ASC 606 checklist complete
7     Inventory/COGS reconciliation     Ops      D+3   Physical vs book <2%
8     Prepare trial balance             GL       D+4   Debits = Credits
9     Variance analysis                 FP&A     D+4   All material items explained
10    Management review & sign-off      CFO      D+5   Signed close package

Accrual Checklist

Common accruals that get missed:

• [ ] Payroll accrual (days worked but not yet paid)
• [ ] Bonus accrual (pro-rata for period)
• [ ] Interest accrual on debt
• [ ] Utility accruals
• [ ] Professional services received but not invoiced
• [ ] Insurance amortization
• [ ] Prepaid expense amortization
• [ ] Deferred revenue recognition

Journal Entry Standards

Every journal entry must include:

• Date
• Debit account(s) with amount
• Credit account(s) with amount
• Description/memo explaining the entry
• Supporting documentation reference
• Preparer and approver

Example:
Date: 2026-02-28
DR  6100 - Professional Services    $15,000
    CR  2100 - Accrued Expenses              $15,000
Memo: Accrue Feb legal fees per engagement letter #2026-041
Support: Email from counsel confirming Feb activity
Prepared: Agent | Approved: [CFO Name]

---

4. CFO Commentary Templates

CFO commentary answers three questions: What changed? Why? What should we do?

Revenue Commentary Template

## Revenue: $X.XM vs Budget $X.XM (↑/↓ X.X%)
What changed:
[Product/Service line] revenue was $XXK [above/below] budget
[Volume/Price/Mix] was the primary driver
Why:
[Root cause — be specific: lost customer, delayed deal, new contract, seasonal]
[Secondary cause if applicable]
What to do:
[Action item 1 with owner and deadline]
[Action item 2 with owner and deadline]
Outlook:
[Forward-looking statement for next period]
[Risk/opportunity to flag]

Expense Commentary Template

## Operating Expenses: $X.XM vs Budget $X.XM (↑/↓ X.X%)
What changed:
[Expense category] was $XXK [over/under] budget
[One-time vs recurring classification]
Why:
[Root cause — hiring timing, vendor price increase, project delay, etc.]
What to do:
[If over: mitigation plan or approval to exceed]
[If under: whether savings are permanent or timing]

Cash Position Commentary

## Cash Position: $X.XM (↑/↓ $XXK from prior month)
Key movements:
Operating cash flow: $XXK [positive/negative]
Collections: $XXK received vs $XXK billed (XX% collection rate)
Major payments: [List any >$25K individual payments]
Liquidity outlook:
Runway: XX months at current burn rate
Covenants: [In compliance / approaching threshold]
Next major cash event: [Date and description]

---

5. Budget vs Actual Analysis

Report Structure

                          Actual    Budget    Var $     Var %    Prior Yr   YoY %
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Revenue
  Product A               450K      500K     (50K)    -10.0%    380K      +18.4%
  Product B               320K      300K      20K      +6.7%    290K      +10.3%
  Services                180K      200K     (20K)    -10.0%    150K      +20.0%
Total Revenue             950K     1,000K    (50K)     -5.0%    820K      +15.9%
COGS                     (380K)    (400K)     20K      -5.0%   (340K)     +11.8%
Gross Profit              570K      600K     (30K)     -5.0%    480K      +18.8%
  Gross Margin           60.0%     60.0%       —         —     58.5%       +1.5pp
Operating Expenses
  Salaries               (250K)    (240K)    (10K)     +4.2%   (200K)     +25.0%
  Marketing               (60K)     (80K)     20K     -25.0%    (50K)     +20.0%
  G&A                     (45K)     (50K)      5K     -10.0%    (40K)     +12.5%
Total OpEx               (355K)    (370K)     15K      -4.1%   (290K)     +22.4%
EBITDA                    215K      230K     (15K)     -6.5%    190K      +13.2%
  EBITDA Margin          22.6%     23.0%    -0.4pp       —     23.2%      -0.6pp

Waterfall Analysis

For board presentations, decompose the variance into a waterfall:

Budget EBITDA          $230K
  Revenue shortfall     (50K)   ← Volume: (30K), Price: (15K), Mix: (5K)
  COGS favorability      20K   ← Material costs lower than expected
  Salary overage        (10K)   ← Hired 2 weeks earlier than planned
  Marketing savings      20K   ← Campaign delayed to next month
  G&A savings             5K   ← Office lease negotiation
Actual EBITDA          $215K

---

6. Ratio Analysis

Liquidity Ratios

Ratio	Formula	Healthy Range	Red Flag
Current Ratio	Current Assets / Current Liabilities	1.5 - 3.0	< 1.0
Quick Ratio	(Cash + Receivables) / Current Liabilities	1.0 - 2.0	< 0.5
Cash Ratio	Cash / Current Liabilities	0.5 - 1.0	< 0.2
Working Capital	Current Assets - Current Liabilities	Positive	Negative trend

Profitability Ratios

Ratio	Formula	Notes
Gross Margin	Gross Profit / Revenue	Compare to industry benchmarks
Operating Margin	Operating Income / Revenue	Exclude one-time items
Net Margin	Net Income / Revenue	After all charges
EBITDA Margin	EBITDA / Revenue	Most comparable across companies
ROE	Net Income / Avg Equity	Should exceed cost of equity
ROA	Net Income / Avg Assets	Asset efficiency measure

Leverage Ratios

Ratio	Formula	Covenant Typical	Warning
Debt/Equity	Total Debt / Total Equity	< 2.0x	> 3.0x
Debt/EBITDA	Total Debt / EBITDA	< 3.0x	> 4.0x
Interest Coverage	EBITDA / Interest Expense	> 3.0x	< 2.0x
Fixed Charge Coverage	(EBITDA - CapEx) / (Interest + Principal)	> 1.2x	< 1.0x

Efficiency Ratios

Ratio	Formula	Target
DSO (Days Sales Outstanding)	(AR / Revenue) × Days	< Payment terms
DPO (Days Payable Outstanding)	(AP / COGS) × Days	Match or exceed DSO
DIO (Days Inventory Outstanding)	(Inventory / COGS) × Days	Industry-specific
Cash Conversion Cycle	DSO + DIO - DPO	Lower is better

---

7. Aging Analysis

Accounts Receivable Aging

Customer        Current   1-30     31-60    61-90    90+      Total    % of AR
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Acme Corp       25,000    10,000   5,000    —        —        40,000   26.7%
Beta LLC        15,000    8,000    —        3,000    —        26,000   17.3%
Gamma Inc       20,000    —        —        —        12,000   32,000   21.3%
All Others      30,000    15,000   5,000    2,000    —        52,000   34.7%
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Total           90,000    33,000   10,000   5,000    12,000   150,000  100%
% of Total      60.0%     22.0%    6.7%     3.3%     8.0%     100%
Reserve Rate    0%        0%       5%       25%      50%
Reserve Amount  —         —        500      1,250    6,000    7,750

Collection Priority Matrix

Bucket	Action	Frequency	Escalation
Current	Thank-you / relationship	Monthly	None
1-30 past due	Friendly reminder email	Weekly	None
31-60 past due	Phone call + formal letter	2x/week	AR Manager
61-90 past due	Demand letter + payment plan	Daily	Controller
90+ past due	Legal review + reserve	Daily	CFO

Accounts Payable Aging

Mirror the AR structure but optimize for:

• Early payment discounts (2/10 Net 30 = 36.7% annualized return)
• Cash flow timing (pay on last day of terms, not before)
• Vendor relationship management (strategic vendors get priority)

---

8. Bank Reconciliation Patterns

Standard Reconciliation Format

Bank Balance per Statement (2/28/2026)           $125,432.18
ADD: Deposits in Transit
  2/27 - Customer payment #4521                     8,500.00
  2/28 - Wire transfer (pending)                   15,000.00
                                                   23,500.00
LESS: Outstanding Checks
  Check #3041 (1/15) - Vendor payment              (2,300.00)
  Check #3055 (2/20) - Rent                        (5,000.00)
  Check #3058 (2/25) - Supplies                      (450.00)
                                                   (7,750.00)
LESS: Bank Errors
  (None this period)                                     0.00
Adjusted Bank Balance                             $141,182.18
Book Balance per GL (2/28/2026)                   $141,682.18
LESS: Bank Charges
  Monthly service fee                                 (35.00)
  Wire fee                                            (25.00)
ADD: Interest Earned
  February interest                                    12.00
LESS: NSF Checks
  Customer ABC - returned check                     (452.00)
Adjusted Book Balance                             $141,182.18
DIFFERENCE                                              $0.00  ✓ RECONCILED

Stale Items Investigation

Any reconciling item older than 30 days requires investigation:

Age	Item Type	Action
30-60 days	Outstanding check	Contact payee, confirm receipt
60-90 days	Outstanding check	Void and reissue if needed
90+ days	Outstanding check	Void, reverse entry, escheatment review
30+ days	Deposit in transit	Investigate with bank, possible misposting

---

9. Financial Statement Review Checklist

Before releasing any financial statement, verify:

Balance Sheet

• [ ] Assets = Liabilities + Equity (must balance to the penny)
• [ ] Cash ties to bank reconciliation
• [ ] AR ties to aging report and subledger
• [ ] AP ties to aging report and subledger
• [ ] Fixed assets tie to depreciation schedule
• [ ] Debt balances tie to loan statements
• [ ] Retained earnings = Prior RE + Net Income - Dividends
• [ ] Intercompany balances eliminate to zero

Income Statement

• [ ] Revenue recognized per ASC 606 / IFRS 15 criteria
• [ ] COGS matches inventory movement
• [ ] Depreciation/amortization matches fixed asset schedule
• [ ] Interest expense matches debt schedule
• [ ] Tax provision is reasonable (effective rate within expected range)
• [ ] No below-the-line items without disclosure
• [ ] Period-over-period comparison is sensible (no sign errors)

Cash Flow Statement

• [ ] Operating + Investing + Financing = Change in Cash
• [ ] Change in cash ties to balance sheet cash movement
• [ ] Non-cash items properly excluded from operating section
• [ ] CapEx in investing ties to fixed asset additions
• [ ] Debt proceeds/payments tie to balance sheet debt movement
• [ ] Supplemental disclosures (interest paid, taxes paid) are accurate

Analytical Review

• [ ] Gross margin is within 2pp of prior period (or explained)
• [ ] Revenue growth is consistent with known business activity
• [ ] No expense line items with >25% unexplained variance
• [ ] Ratios (current, quick, leverage) are within covenant requirements
• [ ] Month-over-month trends are logical
• [ ] YTD figures match sum of monthly figures